Internship Experience

Health Care Management Internship Experience Labovitz School of Business and Economics University of Minnesota Duluth Description of the Program The purpose of the internship program is to provide juniors and seniors with an opportunity to enhance and apply what they learn in their academic program while working in a health service organization. Students are pursuing a degree in business administration and are majoring in health care management.Those that enroll in the Labovitz School of Business and Economics (LSBE) Health Care Management Internship Program will need to accumulate a minimum of 200 hours of work experience over the course of an academic semester or during the summer. The intent of the program is to provide relevant organizational experience to students who otherwise would not have the opportunity to work before completing a degree. Employers are encouraged to participate in the cooperative education internship program.The basic requirements include a clear agreement regarding program requirements, the type of experience being provided, and a line of communication between the student’s mentor/supervisor and the faculty advisor. Internship Objectives The Health Care Management Internship Program enables students to gain added knowledge and skills through structured work experience. Opportunities are available to the student through an internship that cannot be achieved in the classroom. The primary goal of this endeavor is student learning.The specific objectives are to enable students to learn more about health care management; inform the health care community of student abilities and career preparation; give students the opportunity to develop a sense of responsibility for their continued learning by working independently and collaboratively within the parameters of an internship experience; familiarize students with the experiences related to the process of seeking employment; and strengthen ties between LSBE and the health care communi ty by seeking advice from health care leaders concerning curriculum planning, tudent recruitment, and graduate placement. The internship should be designed to provide the student a hands-on experience in a health service organization. It should provide a first hand look at day-to-day operations of a facility and provide the student an opportunity to observe and assist employees in various departments, if possible. It should provide the student an opportunity to observe and be actively involved in management activities using basic management skills of communication, problem solving, management of relationships, and analysis of information. Roles and Responsibilities of the PartiesEmployers of student interns are an integral part of the work experience program. It is important that employers understand that the internship is an educational program integrated with practical work experience. This requires the employer to give careful thought to the utilization of students who will be em ployed. During the internship the student is not a volunteer or an additional staff member but a trainee working to fulfill his/her learning needs in as active a manner as possible with the capability to make positive contributions to the achievement of organizational goals.The following items are basic responsibilities of the employer, mentor, faculty advisor, and student. Employer: 1. Interview students who apply for an internship with your organization to provide them with the added benefit of going through an interview and to help you decide which student best meets your employment needs. 2. Review and discuss student learning objectives during the interview or at the start of the internship, in order to identify means by which they will be accomplished during the employment period. 3.Plan work assignments progressively so that the student will advance from routine activities at the beginning of the internship to more job variety and complexity as needed knowledge and skills are gained. 4. Evaluate student work performance. As a role model and supervisor of students, employers are in a position to provide interns a thorough performance evaluation. The LSBE Internship Office will provide evaluation forms; or you may want to use your organization’s standard appraisal form to assess the intern’s performance and provide feedback. . Provide liability coverage for student intern. The University of Minnesota Duluth Worker’s Compensation and Liability coverage does not extend to student interns. Employers may be concerned about injuries to students on-the-job or problems that could arise due to student inexperience. We recommend that concerns of this nature be addressed to your legal counsel. Your existing worker’s compensation covers paid employees and could possibly be extended to volunteers for a nominal fee if this work arrangement is established. 6.Abide by the University of Minnesota employment policies regarding the treatment of employees, including prevention of sexual harassment in the work place. Detailed descriptions of these policies can be found in the UMD Employer Handbook. 7. Contact Jennifer Schultz, Director of the Health Care Management Program, at 218-726-6695 should problems arise. Mentor/Supervisor: 1. Serve as a model, coach, mentor, and tutor to the student. 2. Assist the student in identification of learning outcomes and activities to achieve them. 3.Assign the student specific and significant duties and projects that contribute to the student’s education but are also beneficial to the operations of the organization. 4. Ensure that opportunity is provided to permit the student to achieve agreed upon learning outcomes within the allotted time. 5. Observe and/or obtain observations of the student’s interactions and work within the organization and provide feedback. 6. Share information and thought processes with the student to provide as much insight as possible into successful approaches to management responsibilities. 7.Provide the student orientation concerning policies, rules and regulations. 8. Provide a concluding evaluation of the student’s performance during the internship upon completion in a manner which will encourage the student to grow in his/her administrative skills. 9. Report misconduct on the part of the student immediately to the faculty advisor and work with the faculty advisor to determine appropriate action to rectify problems or conclude the internship experience at the organization. Faculty advisor: 1. Provide the student and mentor information concerning institutional policies governing internship experiences. . Provide the mentor with written guidelines concerning the content and conduct of the internship and such additional advice and consultation as may be necessary or requested to ensure a satisfactory learning experience for the student. 3. Provide instruction to the mentor concerning learning objectives for a successful internship and procedures to follow to structure and supervise a successful internship. 4. Take action to withdraw a student whose conduct violates organizational rules or who proves not to benefit from the learning experiences provided by the organization. 5.Maintain contact with the student and mentor during the internship to ensure that objectives are being met and that problems are dealt with in a timely manner. At least one on-site visit will be performed. 6. Ensure that all internships are initiated with a signed learning agreement approved by the student, mentor and faculty advisor. 7. Review student’s journal, final written report, and performance evaluations. Student: 1. Apply for academic credit through college registration and work with a faculty advisor for placement with a mentor. 2. Learn and abide by organizational standards as applied to personnel, e. . follow facility hours and dress code policies, etc. 3. Take as active a role as possible in the operations of the organization, performing actual duties within the department as permitted by staff to learn first-hand the activities and their contribution to the overall effectiveness of the organization. 4. Prepare a list of learning outcomes expected from the internship and obtain approval for it from the mentor and faculty advisor, then identify and pursue specific experiences which will achieve those outcomes, again in consultation with the faculty advisor and mentor. 5.Identify and agree with the mentor upon a special project to be completed to satisfy course requirements while providing a learning experience which assists in meeting the student’s learning outcomes. 6. Meet course requirements for completion of assignments including preparation of two reports and weekly journal entries. 7. Taking into consideration course requirements and the student’s personal work and volunteer experience, prepare a schedule of the amount of time to be spent at the organization, obtain approval of the proposed schedule from the mentor and faculty advisor and ensure that it is implemented.

Ap Psychology Review Packet Essay

Absolute Threshold:  the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time. 2. Accommodation:  the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far images on the retina. 3. Acetylcholine:  neurotransmitter that enables muscle action, learning and memory. 4. Achievement Motivation:  desire for accomplishment. 5. Achievement Test:  an exam designed to test what a person has earned. 6. Acoustic Encoding:  encoding of sound, especially words. 7. Acquisition:  the initial stage when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. 8. Action Potential:  a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. 9. Activation Synthesis:  theory that REM sleep triggers neural firing that evokes random images, which our sleep brain weaves into stories. 10. Adaptation Level Phenomenon:  tendency to form judgements relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience. 11. Adrenal Glands:  a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress. 12. Algorithm:  a methodical, logical rule that guarantees solving a particular problem. 3. Alpha Waves:  the relatively slow brain waves of an awake, relaxed state. 14. Amnesia:  loss of memory. 15. Amphetamines:  drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes. 16. Amygdala:  two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion. 17. Aphasia:  impairment of language caused by left hemisp here damage to Broca’s area, impairing speaking, or Wernicke’s area, impairing understanding. 18. Applied Research:  scientific study that aims to solve practical problems 19. Aptitude Test:  designed to predict a person’s future performance. 20. Association Areas:  areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary or sensory functions but in higher mental functions. 21. Associative Learning:  learning that certain events occur together. 22. Automatic Processing:  unconscious encoding of incidental information. 23. Autonomic Nervous System:  the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs. 24. Availability Heuristic:  estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory. 5. Axon:  the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles and glands. 26. B. F. Skinner:  a leading behaviorist; rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior. 27. Babbling Stage:  begins at 4 months; stage of speech development in which infant spontaneously utters various sounds. 28. Barbituates:  drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system,  reducing anxiety  but impairing memory and judgement. 29. Basal Metabolic Rate:  body’s resting rate of energy expenditure. 30. Basic Research:  pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base 31. Behavior Genetics:  the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. 32. Behavioral Medicine:  integrates behavioral and medical knowledge to apply to health and disease. 33. Behaviorism:  the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental process. 34. Belief Perseverance:  clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis has been discredited. 35. Binocular Cues:  depth cues such as retinal disparity that depend on using two eyes. 36. Bio-Feedback:  electronically recording, amplifying and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state. 37. Biological Psychology:  a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior. 38. Biopsychosocial Approach:  an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis. 39. Blind Spot:  the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a â€Å"blind spot† because no receptor cells are located there. 40. Bottom-Up Processing:  analysis that starts with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information. 1. Broca’s Area:  controls language expression; area of the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere. 42. Cannon-Baird Theory:  emotion arousing stimulus triggers physiological response and subjective experience of emotion. 43. Case Study:  an observational technique in which one person id studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles. 44. Central Nervous System:  the brain and spinal cord. 45. Cerebellum:  the â€Å"little brain† at the rear of the brainstem; processes sensory input and coordinates movement output and balance. 46. Cerebral Cortex:  the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center. 47. Change Blindness:  failing to notice changes in the environment 48. Charles Darwin:  argued that natural selection shapes behaviors as well as bodies. 49. Chunking:  organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. 50. Circadian Rhythm:  the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle 51. Classical Conditioning:  one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate future events. 2. Clinical Psychology:  a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats psychological disorders. 53. Cochlea:  a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger neural impulses. 54. Cochlear Implant:  device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threade d through the cochlea. 55. Cognition:  Mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating. 56. Cognitive Map:  mental representation of the layout of ones environment. 57. Cognitive Neuroscience:  the interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked with cognition. 58. Cognitive Perspective:  how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information. 59. Color Constancy:  perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color either if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object. 60. Complementary Alternative Medicine:  unproven healthcare treatments intended to supplement conventional medicine. 61. Conditioned Reinforcer:  a stimulus that gains reinforcing power through its association with the primary reinforcer. 62. Conditioned Response:  the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus. 63. Conditioned Stimulus:  an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with US, triggers a response. 64. Conduction Hearing Loss:  hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea. 65. Cones:  retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and function in daylight of well-lit conditions. 66. Confirmation Bias:  a tendency to search for information that backs one’s own beliefs. 67. Consciousness:  our awareness of ourselves and our environment. 68. Content Validity:  extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest, 69. Continuous Reinforcement:  reinforcing a desired response every time it occurs. 70. Control Group:  the group that is not exposed to the treatment in an experiment. 71. Coping:  alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods. 72. Corpus Callosum:  axon fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres. 73. Correlation:  a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. 74. Correlation Coefficient:  a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1) 75. Counseling Psychology:  a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living and in achieving greater well-being. 76. Critical Thinking:  thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. 77. Culture:  the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one culture to the next. 78. Delta Waves:  the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep. 79. Dendrite:  the bushy, branchy extensions of a neuron that receive message and conduct impulses towards the cell body. 0. Dependent Variable:  the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to the manipulation of the independent variable. 81. Depressants:  drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions. 82. Difference Threshold:  the minimum difference between stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. 83. Discrimination:  learned ability to distinguish between CS and stimuli that do not signal a US. 84. D issociation:  a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others. 85. Dopamine:  neurotransmitter that influences movement, learning, attention and emotion. 86. Double-Blind Procedure:  an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant as to whether the group has received a treatment or a placebo. 87. Drive-Reduction Theory:  physiological need; creates an aroused tension state, a drive, that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. 88. Dual Processing:  the principle that information is simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks 89. Echoic Memory:  momentary sensory memory of an auditory stimuli. 0. Ecstasy (MDMA):  a synthetic stimulant and a mild hallucinogen. Produces Euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurans and to mood and cognition. 91. Edward Titchener:  father of structuralism. 92. Effortful Processing:  encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. 93. Electroencepha logram (EEG):  an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface. 94. Emotion:  response of the whole organism involving psychological arousal, expressive behavior and conscious experience. 95. Emotion-Focused Coping:  Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs relating to one’s stress. 96. Encoding:  the processing of information into the memory system by extracting meaning. 97. Endocrine System:  the body’s â€Å"slow† chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. 98. Endorphins:  Ã¢â‚¬Å"morphine within† – natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure. 99. Environment:  every non-genetic influence. 100. ESP:  claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input. 101. Estrogen:  the primary female sex hormone. 102. Evolutionary Psychology:  the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection. 103. Experiment:  a research method in which an investigator manipulates one of more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process. 104. Experimental Group:  the group that is exposed to the treatment in an experiment. 105. Explicit Memory:  memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare; stored in hippocampus. 106. Extinction:  diminishing of CR; occurs in classical conditions when US does not follow CS. 07. Extrinsic Motivation:  desire to perform to receive rewards or avoid punishment. 108. Factor Analysis:  a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items, called factors, on a test. 109. Feature Detectors:  nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle or movement. 110. Feel-Good Do-Good Phenomena:  tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood. 111. Figure-Ground:  organization of visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings. 112. Fixation:  inability to see a problem from a new perspective. 113. Fixed-Interval Schedule:  reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified amount of time has elapsed. 114. Fixed-Ratio Schedule:  reinforcement schedule that reinforces only after specified number of responses. 115. Flashbulb Memory:  a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. 116. Flow:  a completely involved, focused state of consciousness resulting from optimal engagements of one’s skills. 117. fMRI:  a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity – shows brain function. 118. Fovea:  the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster. 19. Framing:  the way an issue is posed. 120. Fraternal Twins:  twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than a brother or sister. 121. Frequency:  the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time. 122. Frequency Theory:  in hearing, the theory that the rate of neu ral impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. 123. Freud’s Wish-fulfillment:  theory that dreams provide a psychic safety valve for expressing otherwise unacceptable feelings. 124. Frontal Lobes:  portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking, muscles movement, making plans and judgement. 125. Functional Fixedness:  the tendency to think of things only in their usual function. 126. Functionalism:  a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function – how they enable us to adapt, survive and flourish. 127. GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid):  a major inhibitory neurotransmitter. 128. Gate-Control Theory:  theory that spinal cord contains a neurological gate that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass to the brain. 29. Gender Identity:  our sense of being male or female. 130. Gender Role:  a set of expectations for either males or females. 131. Gender Typing:  the acquisition of a traditional male or female role. 132. General Adaptation Syndrome:  Selye’s concept of body’s adaptive response to stress; alarm, resistance, exhaustion. 133. General Intelli gence:  general intelligence factor, according to Spearman, underlies specific mental abilities and is measured by every task on an intelligence test. 134. Generalization:  tendency after response has been conditioned for similar stimuli to elicit similar responses. 135. Genome:  the complete instructions for making an organism. 136. Gestault:  organized whole; tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes. 137. Glial Cells:  cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons. 138. Glutamate:  a major excitatory neurotransmitter – involved in memory. 139. Grouping:  perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups based on proximity, similarity, continuity and connectedness. 140. Hallucinations:  false sensory experiences. 141. Hallucinogens:  drugs taht distort perception and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input. 142. Health Psychology:  sub-field of psychology; provides psychology’s contribution to behavioral medicine. 143. Heritability:  the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. 144. Heuristic:  a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make strategies and solve problems quickly. 145. Hierarchy of Needs:  Mazlow’s pyramid of human needs; begins with physiological needs which must be met before higher goals can be attained. 146. Higher-Order Conditioning:  procedure where conditioned stimulus in one experience is paired with a new, neutral stimulus, creating a new Conditioned Stimulus. 47. Hindsight Bias:  the tendency to believe that, after learning the outcome, one would have foreseen it. 148. Hippocampus:  a neural center that is located in the limbic system and helps process explicit memories for storage. 149. Homeostasis:  tendency to maintain a state of balance. 150. Hormones:  chemical messengers that are manufact ured by the endocrine glands. 151. Hue:  the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of the light. 152. Humanistic Psychology:  historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual’s potential for personal growth. 53. Hypothalamus:  a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward. 154. Hypothesis:  a testable prediction. 155. Iconic Memory:  a momentary sensory memory of a visual stimuli; a photographic memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second. 156. Identical Twins:  twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits into two, creating two genetically identical organisms. 157. Illusory correlation:  the perception of a relationship where none exists. 158. Implicit Memory:  retention independent of conscious recollection; stored in cerebellum. 159. Inattentional Blindness:  failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere 160. Incentive:  a positive or negative environmental stimulus. 161. Independent Variable:  the experimental factor which is directly manipulated. 162. Industrial Organizational Psychology:  using psychological concepts to optimize behavior in work places. 163. Information Processing:  theory that dreams help us sort out the day’s events and consolidate our memories. 164. Infradian Rhythm:  long-term cycle; greater than a day 65. Inner Ear:  the inner most part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs. 166. Insight:  sudden and novel realization of the solution to a problem. 167. Insomnia:  recurring problems in falling or staying asleep. 168. Instinct:  a complex behavior rigidly patterned throughout the species and is unlearned. 169. Intensity:  the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we can perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave’s amplitude. 170. Interaction:  the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor depends on another. 171. Interneurons:  neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and the motor outputs. 172. Intrinsic Motivation:  desire to perform for its own sake. 173. Intuition:  effortless, immediate feeling or thought. 174. Iris:  a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening. 175. James-Lange Theory:  emotion is awareness of physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli. 176. Kinesthesis:  system for sensing the position and movement of individual body movements. 77. Latent Content:  according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream. 178. Latent Learning:  learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. 179. Law of Effect:  Thorndike’s principle that behavior followed by favorable consequences become more likely and behaviors followed by negative consequences become less likely. 180. Lens:  the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina. 181. Lesion:  destruction of the brain tissue. 182. Levels of Analysis:  the differing complementary views for analyzing any iven phenomenon. 183. Limbic System:  neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives. 184. Lingusitic Determinism:  Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think. 185. Long-Term Memory:  relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. 186. Long-Term Potentiation (LTP):  increase in synapse-s firing potential after rapid stimulation; the neural basis for learning and memory. 187. LSD:  a powerful hallucinogenic drug; alsdo known as acid. 188. Lymphocytes:  the two types of white blood cells that are part of the immune system. 189. Manifest Content:  according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream. 190. Mean:  the arithmetic average of a distribution. 191. Median:  the middle score in a distribution. 192. Medulla:  the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing. 193. Mental Age:  measure of test performance devised by Binet; chronological age that typically correlates with a given age. 194. Mental Set:  tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often one that has been successful. 195. Methamphetamine:  a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system and appears to drop base dopamine levels over time. 96. Middle Ear:  the chamber between the eardrum and the cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window. 197. Mirror Neurons:  frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when performing another doing so; this may enable im itation or empathy. 198. Misinformation Effect:  incorporating misleading information into ones memory. 199. Mnemonics:  memory aids. 200. Mode:  the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution. 201. Modeling:  observing and imitating a specific behavior. 202. Monocular Cues:  depth cues available to either eye alone. Includes relative height, relative size, interposition, linear perspective, light and shadow, and relative motion. 203. Mood Congruent Memory:  tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood. 204. Morpheme:  the smallest unit that carries meaning. 205. Motivation:  a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior. 206. Motor Cortex:  an area at the rear if the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. 207. Motor Neurons:  neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. 208. MRI:  a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. 209. Mutation:  a random error in gene replication that leads to a change. 210. Myelin Sheath:  a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed. 211. Narcolepsy:  a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times. 212. Natural Selection:  inherited trait variations contributing to survival and reproduction will be passed on to succeeding generations. 13. Naturalistic Observation:  observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation. 214. Nature-Nurture issue:  controversy over contributions of genes vs. experience 215. Near-death Experience:  an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death; often similar to dru g-induced hallucinations. 216. Negative Reinforcement:  increasing behaviors by stopping a negative stimuli. 217. Neo-Freudian Theory:  theory that dreams can be used as a coping mechanism to deal with past events. 218. Nerves:  bundled axons that form neural â€Å"cables† connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs. 219. Nervous system:  the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. 220. Neurogenesis:  the formation of new neurons. 221. Neuron:  a nerve cell; the basic building block of he nervous system. 222. Neurotransmitters:  chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. 223. Night Terrors:  a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified. 24. Norepinephrine:  neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal. 225. Normal Curve:  a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data. 226. Observational Learning:  learning by observing others. 227. Occipital Lobes:  portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas t hat receive information from the visual fields 228. One-Word Stage:  from age 1 to 2; when a child speaks in single words. 229. Operant Behavior:  Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences. 230. Operant Chamber:  a chamber / Skinner Box containing a bar that an animal can manipulate to obtain water or food. 231. Operant Conditioning:  type of learning in which behavior is strengthened followed by a reinforcer or diminished followed by a punisher. 232. Operational Definition:  a statement of the procedures used to define research variables. 233. Opiates:  opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. 234. Opponent-Process Theory:  the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. 35. Optic Nerve:  the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain. 236. Organizational Psychology:  part of IO Psychology; examines psychological influences o worker satisfaction and productivity. 237. Overconfidence:  tendency to be more confident than correct. 238. Parallel Processing:  the processing of many aspects of a problem simu ltaneously. 239. Parapsychology:  study of paranormal phenomena. 240. Parasympathetic Nervous System:  the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. 241. Parathyroids:  help regulate the level of calcium in the blood 242. Parietal Lobes:  portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top/rear of the head; receives sensory input for touch and body position. 243. Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement:  Reinforcing a response only part of the time. 244. Perception:  the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events. 245. Perceptual Adaptation:  in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or inverted visual field. 246. Perceptual Set:  mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. 247. Peripheral Nervous System:  the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body. 248. Personnel Psychology:  focuses on recruitment, selection and placement of employees. 249. PET Scan:  a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. 250. Phoneme:  the smallest distinctive sound unit. 251. Physical Dependence:  a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued 252. Pitch:  a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency. 53. Pituitary Gland:  the endocrine gland system’s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. 254. Place Theory:  in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated. 255. Placebo Effect:  exper imental results caused by expectation alone. 256. Plasticity:  the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage of by building new pathways based on experience 257. Polygraph:  lie detector machine; measures responses to emotion. 58. Pons:  part of the brainstem that helps coordinate movements. 259. Population:  all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples can be drawn. 260. Positive Reinforcement:  increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli. 261. Posthypnotic Suggestion:  a suggestion, made during a hypnotic session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized. 262. Predictive Validity:  the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict. 263. Primary Reinforcer:  an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. 264. Priming:  the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response. 265. Pro-Social Behavior:  positive, constructive behavior. 266. Proactive Interference:  the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. 267. Problem-Focused Coping:  attempting to alleviate stress by changing the stressor or how we interact with that stressor. 268. Prototype:  a mental image or best example of a category. 269. Pshchological Dependence:  a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions. 270. Psychiatry:  a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders. 271. Psychoactive Drug:  a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods. 272. Psychodynamic Perspective:  how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts 273. Psychology:  the study of behavior and mental processes. 274. Psychoneuroeimmunology:  study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes affect the immune system. 275. Psychophysics:  the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them. 276. Psychophysiological Illness:  mind-body illness; any stress-related physical illness, including hypertension. 277. Pupil:  the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters. 278. Random Assignment:  assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing pre-existing differences between the two groups. 279. Random Sample:  a sample that fairly represents a given population. 280. Range:  The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. 281. Recall:  measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier. 82. Recognition:  measure of memory in which the person only identifies items previously learned. 283. Reflex:  a simple, autonomic response to a sensory stimulus. 284. Rehearsal:  conscious repetition of information, either for maintenance or encoding. 285. Reinforcer:  an event that strengthens behavior. 286. Relative Deprivation:  perception that one is worse off relative to those you compare yourself to. 287. Relearning:  a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time. 288. Reliability:  extent to which a test yields consistent results. 89. REM Rebound:  the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation. 290. REM sleep:  rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. 291. Replication:  repeating the essence of a research study to see whether the basic findings extend to other participants and circumstances. 292. Representativeness Heuristic:  judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent particular prototypes. 293. Respondent Behavior:  occurs as automatic response to some stimulus. 294. Reticular Formation:  a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal. 295. Retina:  the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye. 296. Retinal Disparity:  a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing the images of the retinas from the two eyes. 297. Retrieval:  process of getting information out of storage. 298. Retroactive Interference:  the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. 299. Reuptake:  a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron. 300. Rods:  retinal receptors that detect black, white and gray. 301. Savant Syndrome:  condition in which a person is limited in mental ability but has exceptional specific skill. 302. Scatterplots:  a graphed cluster of dots, the slope of which helps predict the direction of the relationship between the two variables. 303. Selective Attention:  the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimuli 304. Semantic Encoding:  encoding of meaning. 305. Semantics:  set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words and sentences. 306. Sensation:  the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. 07. Sensorineural Hearing Loss:  hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves. Also called nerve deafness. 308. Sensory Adaptation:  diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. 309. Sensory Cortex:  area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and moveme nt sensations. 310. Sensory Interaction:  principle that one sense may influence another; smell of food influences its taste. 311. Sensory Memory:  immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory. 12. Sensory Neurons:  neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. 313. Serial Position Effect:  the tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. 314. Serotonin:  neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal. 315. Set Point:  the point where someone’s weight thermostat. 316. Shaping:  an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior closer and closer to the desired behavior. 317. Short-Term Memory:  activated memory that holds a few items briefly. 318. Sigmund Freud:  Austrian neurologists who founded psychoanalysis. 319. Signal Detection Theory:  a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background noise. Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation and level of fatigue. 320. Sleep Apnea:  a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings. 321. Social Leadership:  group oriented leadership that builds teamwork and offers support. 322. Social Learning Theory:  the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished. 323. Social-cultural Perspective:  how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures 324. Somatic Nervous System:  the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. 325. Source Amnesia:  attributing the wrong source to an event we have experienced; at the heart of many false memories. 326. Spacing Effect:  tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better retention that massed study or practice. 327. Split Brain:  a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers connecting them. 328. Spontaneous Recovery:  Reappearance after a pause of an extinguished CR. 329. Standard Deviation:  a computed measure of how much the scores vary around the mean score. 330. Stanford-Binet:  widely used American revision of Binet’s original intelligence test. 331. Statistical Significance:  a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. 332. Stereotype Threat:  self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on negative stereotypes. 333. Stimulants:  drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. 334. Storage:  retention of encoded information. 335. Stress:  how we perceive and respond to stressors that we appraise as threatening or challenging. 336. Structuralism:  an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind. 337. Structured Interviews:  asking the same questions of all applicants and rating on the standard scale. 338. Subjective Well-Being:  self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. 339. Subliminal:  below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness. 340. Survey:  a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes of behaviors of a group. 341. Sympathetic Nervous System:  the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. 342. Synapse:  the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. 343. Syntax:  rules for combining words into sensible sentences. 344. Task Leadership:  goal oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes leadership and focuses on goals. 345. Telegraphic Speech:  early speech stage where child speaks like a telegram; uses nouns and verbs. 46. Temporal Lobes:  portion of the cerebral cortex lying above the ears; receives auditory information 347. Testosterone:  the most important of male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex char acteristics during puberty. 348. Thalamus:  the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem. 349. THC:  the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations. 350. Theory:  an explanation that organizes behavior and predicts future outcomes. 351. Threshold:  the level of stimulation necessary to trigger a neural impulse. 352. Thyroid Gland:  affects metabolism, among other things 353. Tolerance:  the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses of the drug before experiencing the drugs effects. 354. Top-Down Processing:  information processing guided by higher level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. 55. Transduction:  conversion of one form of energy into another. 356. Two_Word Stage:  beginning at age 2; child speaks in 2 word statements. 357. Two-Factor Theory:  called Schachter-Singer Theory; to experience emotion, one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal. 358. Type A:  competitive, hard-driving, impatient. 359. Type B:  easy-going, relaxed people. 360. Ultradian Rhythm :  short-term cycle; less than a day 361. Unconditioned Response:  the unlearned naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus. 362. Unconditioned Stimulus:  a stimulus that unconditionally triggers a response. 363. Validity:  extent to which a test measures what its supposed to measure. 364. Variable-Interval Schedule:  reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after random number of responses. 365. Variable-Ratio Schedule:  reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. 366. Vestibular Sense:  sense of body movement and position including balance. 367. Visual Cliff:  lab device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals. 368. Visual Encoding:  encoding of picture images. 369. Watson and Rayner:  famous for their â€Å"Little Albert† experiment. 370. Wavelength:  the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. 371. 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Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory:  the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors – red, green and blue. absolute threshold:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time. 2. accommodation:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina. 3. accommodations:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Adapting one’s current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information. 4. acetylcholine:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ A neurotransmitter that, among its functions, triggers muscle contraction. 5. acoustic encoding:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The encoding of sounds, especially the sound of words. . acquisition:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. 7. action potent ial:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. The action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon’s membrane. 8. activation synthesis hypothesis:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Theory to describe dreaming that explains dreaming as being random neural activity hat the brain tries to make sense of. 9. acuity:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The Sharpness of vision. 10. addictions:  dependency to drugs comes about from potentially one use of the substance were the body can build up dependence to the substance. 11. adolescence:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence. 12. adrenal glands:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ A pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys. The adrenals secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (nonadrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress. 13. ll or nothing law:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Increasing the stimulus abov e the threshold will not increase the action potential intensity. The neuron’s action is an all or nothing response; it either will fire or it will not. The strength of the stimulus does not effect action potential’s speed. 14. alpha waves:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state. 15. alzheimer’s disease:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ A progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally physical functioning. 16. amnesia:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The loss of memory 17. mygdala:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion. 18. assimilation:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Interpreting one’s new experience in terms of one’s existing schemas. 19. association areas:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as lear ning, remembering, thinking, and speaking. 20. associative learning:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). 1. attachment:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ An emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation. 22. audition:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The sense of hearing 23. automatic nervous system:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms. 24. automatic processing:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings. 25. xon:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands. 26. barbiturates:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgement. 27. basiler membrane:  within the cochlea of the inner ear is a stiff structural element that separates two liquid-filled tubes that run along the coil of the cochlea, the scala media and the scala tympani. 28. behavioral genetics:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. 29. Behavioral Psychology:  a branch of psychology that focuses on how we learn from observable responses. An individuals’ response to different environment stimuli shapes our behaviors. 30. Behaviorism:  The view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree that psychology should be an objective science but do not think that it should be without reference to mental processes. 31. behaviorism:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. For example, intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. 193. opiates:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. 194. opponent-process theory:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green 195. optic nerve:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain. 96. parallel processing:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. 197. parallel processing:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The processing of several aspects of a problem simul taneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscience problem solving. 198. Parasympathetic nervous system:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. 199. parietal lobes:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; includes the sensory cortex. 200. Peripheral nervous system:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body. 201. PET:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ A visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. 202. Phenotype:  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ An organisms physical characteristics is its phenotype.

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Reading Reflection - Assignment Example Cultivating integrative thinking is possible when one views their problems as processes other than events, and problems as products. As a process, a situation makes it the responsibility of the learner to search for the problem without direct or indirect reference to the problem. Conversely, the product arising from the process of identifying the problem is also a problem because besides the presentation of the problem, raising crucial questions and identifying what is expected leads to a further problem to solve. Although dealing with life problems maybe outlined in simple and motivating steps, I understand that the intensity of one problem differs from that of another. Consequently, I would be wrong to say that I have an ideal way of dealing with all my problems. However, with the right questions for each problem, identifying the right approach is easier, even though it is labor intensive. I have come to understand that despite my student life being a high pressure and high stake situation, I have never had the right approach nor known the ultimate expectations of my academic writing. Actually, I have simplified by academic writing to fulfilling one of the instructor’s expectations. In some way, this approach has presented some pressure but, I have always performed just above average, and this is an indication that I missed some crucial steps. Average academic performance also implies that, my approach to the problem did not involve the hard work required to develop the complex idea in the problem. Consequently, I have failed to meet high achiever’s grades. In life situations, this would present me as a lesser competent person and could probably translate to less employability due to evident limitations in handling pressure. Regardless of the inappropriateness of the question, I have learnt that the beginning of any academic

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Project management 'New museum' - Assignment Example Projects have a start and end date, the funding limits, consumes human and nonhuman materials (Kerzner, 2006). Project management involves planning and monitoring of the project compares the intended and the actual end of the project. Analyze the impact and making adjustments as needed. (Meredith, 2006). Project management changed from hierarchical matrix to a linear matrix with the Project Manager responsible for the project from planning to completion. This makes selection of a project manager that has a set of skills that allows successful completion of the project. A manager needs experience, knowledge, good communication skills, interpersonal relationship, and the ability to make subset of the teams work in harmony and move the project to completion. Project Managers use a series of planning tools to assign tasks, monitor progress, and ability to adjust project timelines as needed (Meredith, 2006). Stakeholder charts identifies individual and groups with an interest in the proje ct. Some of these stakeholders will work on the project as a team member. Work flow charts break the process used into segments each part dependent on the deliverables of the prior team efforts. In practice several phases operate at the same pace with deliverables due in the same time frame. Gannt charts track progress of the teams and allows for adjustment if one team's deliverable falls behind the due date. Introduction Gotham Science Museum planned expansion has received a legacy from a museum sponsor to fund the entire cost of the project. His bequest asked that environmental science as the focus of the new wing. The education director says that requests for programs dealing with environmental science are increasing. The present education space limits the ability to deliver hands-on environmental classes. The need for more space has become critical due to increase requests for classes and special programs related to the science. Current education department space handles approxi mately 120 students at one time. The education director has a waiting list of schools wanting to programs in the sciences to enhance learning experience of their students in the science disciplines (Chrysler Museum of Art, 2010). . Project The present museum structure has expanded twice in the last twenty years and has reached the limit of expansion capacity. The museum director recommended to the board of directors that the museum locate a building or vacant lot in close proximity to the main museum building as an education annex. A new facility offers potential to carry out the request of the legator that the new center concentrate on environmental science. An acquisition committee searched the available buildings and lots that fill the museum's vision of the annex. The city council stepped in with an offer of the Gotham Bank Building. The building is located close to the industrial section of the city, and in close proximity to the waterfront park. The building is five stories an d offers an opportunity to completely gut and renovate the building using green technologies. The site selected, a planning committee organized of professional museum staff, members of the museum's support staff, and the city assigned an engineer and building inspector to the committee to advise on the feasibility of possible renovation concepts. The planning committee

Comparison between Saudi Accounting Standards (SOCPA) and IFRS Dissertation

Comparison between Saudi Accounting Standards (SOCPA) and IFRS - Dissertation Example Comparison between Saudi Accounting Standards (SOCPA) and IFRS.The present unrelenting global recession that originated from the US and extended globally revealed the nascent close links that existing amongst international financial and economic sectors.The present unrelenting global recession that originated from the US and extended globally revealed the nascent close links that existing amongst international financial and economic sectors. The wayward acts of business leaders aided by aberrant accountants as depicted in the Enron and WorldCom scandals in 2001 and the subprime mortgage crisis exposed that financial accounting practices have to be strictly scrutinized globally to avoid any such repetition. Subsequently the diverse local accounting associations in accord with the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) led by the EU instigated the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) (Yoon, 2009). These novel guidelines were intended to have harmonised standardiz ed regulations to steer accountants and organisations worldwide. However, the implementation of IFRS has met a raft of challenges in assorted jurisdictions including the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia due to cultural, social-economic and religious beliefs. The accounting history in Saudi Arabia can be traced to the 14th Hijri century (1930) when through a royal decree it was established that accounting records should be upheld. The issuance of CPA regulations commenced in 1974 and the Saudi Organization for Certified Public Accountants (SOCPA) was initiated in 1992 through a royal decree No.M12... The issuance of CPA regulations commenced in 1974 and the Saudi Organization for Certified Public Accountants (SOCPA) was initiated in 1992 through a royal decree No.M12 (SCOPA, 2011). SOCPA has been responsible for developing and setting accounting standards or compliance with the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) of Saudi Arabia as well as CPA exams, training, research, publications etc (Al-Aqeel, 2009). Keywords SOCPA-GAAP, Shariah and Islamic financial model, IAS/IFRS standards, standardisation Research Question What are the main areas of divergence and convergence between the Saudi Organization for Certified Public Accountants (SOCPA) and the International Accounting Standards (IAS) and International Financial Reporting Standards  (IFRS) standards? Aims This study aims at establishing a comparison between the SOCPA accounting standards and the IAS) and IFRS and probable evolution of SOCPA standards in view of the adoption of the universal international guidelines . The study will thus explore the convergence and divergence of the two standards in addition to examining the historical evolution of the accounting and auditing fields in Saudi Arabia. A critical scrutiny of the available literature as well as comprehensive field study will be conducted amongst organisations operating within the country. The Objectives of the Research This study will attempt to cover the gaps in previous studies that have scantily covered the region while offering recommendations on areas that can be transformed for more effective standardisation as well as for further studies. The study will therefore endeavour to understanding the convergence and divergence between

Al-Qaeda in Southeast Asia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Al-Qaeda in Southeast Asia - Essay Example Consistent with this fact, the term ‘Al Qaeda’ was not Christened by Osama bin Laden; rather, it was the United States intelligence agency CIA that referred to the Islamic activists led by bin Laden in this manner in the mid-1990s. Al Qaeda, translated from Arabic, literally means a â€Å"foundation or precept’. The term Jemaah Islamiyah, a terrorist outfit that has its roots in Southeast Asia is translatable into â€Å"Islamic community† (Shuja, 2006, p.447). Hence, the employment of terrorism is not an intrinsic aspect of these organizations. Terrorism is only a tactic that was adopted during the last decade or so, but there is nothing inevitable about it. This fact should be kept in mind by Australian security agencies, while drawing awareness campaigns and security measures, for far too often western intelligence tends to portray these Islamic groups to indulge in terrorist activities for terror’s sake. This is not true. The Jihadists’ ob jective is to defend their faith and their way of life, which they feel is threatened by the western cultural and military interventions in the Islamic world (and there is sufficient proof to support this assertion). To understand how Al Qaeda gained support in Southeast Asia, it is important to gain cognisance of its founding principle, i.e. Al Qaeda was founded on universal Islamic precepts of jihad and brotherhood. And the present wave of Islamic revivalism and the rise of Islamic fundamentalism in Southeast Asia originated during the 1970s.

Wise Judgment Scenario Essay Example for Free

Wise Judgment Scenario Essay The wise judgment scenario that I have chosen to write on is the teenage girl  in love. The teenaged girl’s boyfriend that she is in love with is encouraging her to have sex; he is saying he will make sure they only have protected sex. Older woman can usually relate to situations like this, because we were all once young. I have personally dealt with this wise judgment situation but at a younger age. When coming to situations like these one must make a wise judgment, this will take place with in the perception of the person. There are several questions the young girl needs to think about; am I old enough, do I really love him, is it worth it, or is he worth it. The person needs to look with in her emotional perception. This is the person’s ability to identify emotions and recognize them in others. The teenage girl needs to think, does he really show emotions for me as I do for him. She thinks that she is in love, but how does she know she is not experiencing lust for the boy? Maybe the couple spends too much time together, and she cannot decipher her emotions because she is constantly with him. If she was to go hang out with friends maybe then she could open up and realizes if this is something she should avoid at this age. Mood changes sometimes enable people to appreciate different and more points of view. This scenario is almost a hard factor for a lot of people to try and make judgments towards. I think this is because we do not know how old the teenage girl is, and we do not know her or the boy friends back ground. Now in our present time, teenage pregnancy is very common now, and most of them our in their very low teens. I think this should have a lot to do with decisions making when it comes to unprotected sex. If the boy friend says he will make sure, it is also in her wise judgment to make sure as well, not just him. Wise judgment has been hypnotized into five components, to better help people understand. The first component is factual knowledge about matters of life. This means this includes knowledge about human nature, interpersonal relations, and social norms (Ch 4, pg94). The teenage girl  needs to get more information about interpersonal relation and human nature. This will help her understand how relationships work, and she can find out if she is in love with him or is it lust. If this is her first relationship it is more than likely going to be lust. As teenagers hormones kick in they like whoever is the first persons to show them the attention they like. This could also be another factor in her having sex with this boy. He could be using her because he knows she is irritable. The next component is procedural knowledge, this deal with weighing goals, methods of handling conflict, and ways of offering advice. The teenagers can use this knowledge by weighing goals that they wish to have as they get older. For example if they want to go to college, or even get married in a couple years, what if they have kids. All these need to be thought about when they are being sexual active because having protected sex does not always 100% prevent births. So they need t think, what happens if we do get pregnant, will I still be able to achieve the goals that I had before hand, like finishing school. Handling conflict is also a strategy they can think about, what if they have sex and they end up breaking up. Questions like where would we go from there? The third component is lifespan contextualism, this is knowledge about different roles and contexts of life and how they may change in life. The teenage couple may not realize that as they grow older and mature that there might be someone else out there for them. If they can learn to wait and enjoy being teenagers and not have to possible deal with the risk and responsibilities of life, they might find more friends and things to do. In a life we come in contact with so many people, making so many friends along the way. Life is to enjoy and not grow up to fast, live and learn. Next is the fourth component of wise judgment and it is recognition and management of uncertainly. This is that the future cannot be fully known in advance and that life is unpredictable. This should be a very big component in talking about sexual relations, especially between young people. Having a child at a young age is something that cannot be predicted. Even protected sex can go wrong; the best protection is not having sex until parent hood is ready. The last component to wise judgment is relativism regarding solutions. This is to acknowledge individual and cultural differences in values and life priorities. This brings us back to goals. Setting goals as a younger person is vary valuable in life, it can help you reach what you want to be in life.  The teenagers need to be aware of their goals and not only a couple but as individuals. They need to be fully aware of the effects that teen sex can cause. They need to think what happens if she does get pregnant are they financially responsible to take care of another life. Based on the five components of wise judgments the decision that I have made regarding this scenario is that they should wait. I have chosen to make this decision because all the facts make sense. If the teenagers are in â€Å"love† then I believe that they should be able to wait a little bit longer. They need to wait and make sure they are finished with school and both have reliable jobs. I think these are important to look at because if she happens to get pregnant she will not have to quit school or fall behind on school work, since she will be graduated. Also having jobs and an established place is a big deal. They do not want to have the burden of having a baby and not having anyway of raising the baby. Also it says that he is encouraging her into having sex, and I think that this is a form of peer pressure and on his behalf is not fair. Younger teenage girls are very vulnerable when it comes to having a boyfriend interested in being with them. So I think waiting is the true test of their relationship.

Marketing strategies in different markets of ferrari

Marketing strategies in different markets of ferrari The sports car brand Ferrari when focused, I analyzed their success and marketing strategies in different markets, one the German and second Italian market and worldwide. For information I used business theories such as the product life cycle, marketing mix, analysis of positioning and segmentation. These two large economically stable countries are different; Ferrari does not make many differences in the way of selling cars. The company being recognized by its rearing- stallion logo is up to speed. The Italian Co. volume sales to build its status brand by producing 6,400 high-performance sports cars a year, with the initial price about $140,000. GT and sports model include models like Spider, Scaglietti and Ferrari California. The companys F1 model brings Ferrari drivers close to the racing experience. Since 1947, the exclusive cars have been manufactured in Maranello, Italy and sold through strategically selected dealerships. Fiat S.p.A group holds 85% stake in Ferrari , Piero Ferra ri, son of Ferraris founder, owns 10%. Throughout the history of the company it has been noted for its continuous participation in racing mainly on Formula 1 where they have achieved great success. For the growth the company has launched a Ferrari World Theme Park in Abu Dhabi in the year 2010 which is also leading them to gain profits as people are attracted towards it. The sales have been increasing at an increasing rate from 2004-2008, in 2008 they had performed above average with a record breaking sales of above 6587 cars in a year for the first time, as result their turnover increased by 16% while the profit has been increased by ravishing 75%. But due recession hitting in fall 2008, the sales volume drastically fell by 85% in November 2008 (the sales reduced to 92 cars from 600 cars a month). As a result in 2009 there has been a fall in sales, turnover and profit. INTRODUCTION The history of Ferrari is incomplete without mentioning that Enzo Ferrari worked for Alfa Romeo from 1920-1929, after which he raced for another 10years for Alfas. From the time he was 12 he knew he wanted to be a race driver, the dream which he achieved at Alfa and adopted the cavallino, or prancing horse, insignia for his Alfa race car. In 1929 Enzo left Alfa to start his privately owned Alfa Romeo racing team known as Scuderia Ferrari in Modena. Scuderia Ferrari did not race cars with the name Ferrari; the Ferrari shop built its first car in Modena in 1937 the Alfa Romeo 158 Grand Prix Racer. The first championship they got was in 1952-1953 season. Ferrari started making sports cars in order to finance his Grand Prix and Le Mans adventures. Ferrari headed the company until he stepped down in 1971 and died in his hometown of Modena. His name is the most famous in motor sports. In 1952 the emblem of the prancing horse was created which is still used today. THE MARKET ENVIORNMENT:- The geographical market: in todays market Ferrari is facing tough competitors like Lamborghini, Porsche, BMW and Aston Martin. To survive in the market the competitors try and make highly innovative designs and high quality performance. They are in an automotive industry and have a subsidiary type of business and it was started by Enzo Ferrari. The headquarters of Ferrari are located in Maranello, Italy. It had remarkable revenue à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬1,921 million (2008). The owners of Ferrari are Fiat group 85%, Mubadala Development Company 5%. PEST-G analysis:- Political: the environmental protection laws in the company have come out with launching eco-friendly system in the car which will reduce pollution in the atmosphere, which politically will affect the taxation system as the consumers demand will increase. Economic: in the economic conditions Ferrari tries to be successful and profitable at any time because it affects its capital cost and demand. The timing and relative success of the company can be influenced by the economic conditions. The government decision plays an important role in the companys progress. Social: it depicts the demand and taste of the consumer demanded by the company which varies with the fashion and disposable income. Ferrari organization should be aware of the demographic changes such as the structure of the population by ages, affluence, regions and numbers working. Technology: the company tries to launch the latest technology for its automobiles as a competitive advantage for itself but it should keep in mind that technological breakthroughs can create new industries which might prove a treat to itself. On the other hand new technology could provide a useful input, in both manufacturing and service industries. THE COMPETITION The main competitors: in the market of Ferrari the competitors it faces are Lamborghini, BMW, Porsche and Aston Martin which has better performance and color and high quality maintenance Ferrari could face tough competition in the following. Sales and profit trend: The Middle Eastern and Far Asian sales of the competitive company has increased from 15.0-21.8% and also increased the unit sales from 2406-2430, which means the growth of 1%. The profit reports a decrease in worldwide sales for the first six months of the financial year 2009, in spite of which the company is still maintaining overall profitability among the major markets. Market Share: the company car tax efficiency, class-leading residual values and whole life costs have resulted in competitors winning a record share of the UK contract hire and leasing market. The competitors share of market has reached an all-time high of 8.8%-2.7% points up on the previous results. Target Markets: the competitors target market is upper-class people with high level of income. They focus on a person who mostly looks for luxury. In the future automobiles will have tough competition for selling the most environmental friendly vehicles. THE COMPANY Sales and profit trend: Ferrari announced a significant increase in both profits and sales for the second quarter of 2010, driven by the success of two new models, the California and 485, as well as demands for Ferrari 599 GTO. Revenue rose 8.6% year on year to EUR488m Euro and vehicle unit sales were 2.6% up at 1,615 units. Trading profit was up 10% to EUR77m. Market share: the companys total sales were 3,226 cars for customers around the world but it was 8% less compared to the year 2008. The market share price was up but was low on sales as the share increased by 10 to 32.8% in 2009. Business sector: the company was found in 1947 by Enzo Ferrari in Italy. They had highest sales was in the year 2008 despite seeing the period of recession. It has achieved one of the highest awards which were in the year 1997 (FCA) which was given in the annual meet, it also achieved the Platino Award for its reorganization. Project focus: the product of the company is an automobile, the brand name is Ferrari, it has launched models such as- Ferrari 308 GT4, Ferrari 550 Maranello, Ferrari 360 Modena Spider, Ferrari Challenge Stardale, Ferrari 430 Monza and many more. Their main segment is focused on F1 races. It mostly races in Italian and Australian Grand Prix. SWOT analysis :- STRENGTHS WEAKNESSES Extremely strong brand image Takes on new challenges on a constant basis Innovation Technology are key drivers behind the product Is looked upon as a status symbol. Ferraris business model, based around low volumes, removes the possibility of employing certain technological solutions Some models also limit their sales volumes even though a lot more demand is present in the market Due to their waiting list model, they lose out on customers to the competition A big challenge lying in wait is fuel efficiency emissions which are growing in importance every day, OPPERTUNITIES THREATS Growth in global market for high-performance super-cars due to growing economies developing nations Expansion of the brand through entering into new important automotive markets like India wherein competitors like Porsche have already set up base Enlargement of customer base maintaining Ferrari characteristics-performance, style and exclusivity. Development of technology has opened up new avenues to explore for their products. Tough competition from other iconic super car brands like Lamborghini Porsche. Automotive policies being pushed by countries continents all over the world which are being strictly enforced like the emission norms of 130g/km of CO2 are very difficult to keep up with due to the performance oriented nature of the engines built by Ferrari A competing brand like Porsche does not follow the same low volumes, high on exclusivity model which is followed by Ferrari hence sells a lot more of its products. THE COMPANYS MARKETING STRATEGY Segmentation:- demographic segmentation defines market accordingly White / Caucasian 89% Age 51.5 Married 83% Total in household- 2.94 Total of children 0.75 Education 79% Psychological Segmentation identifies market according to lifestyle characteristics Targeting: the identification of target markets based on the regional, urban, or rural locations of the customers. The company has different models of vehicles to help each individual accomplish a safe drive where ever they are coming from. Positioning: Ferrari is a car in the Super Luxury sub- category and is distinctly more expensive compared to the luxury cars such as BMW, Lexus and Mercedes. It is probably the only car maker that never worries at competition price its name is unmatchable. It is one of a kind automobile that doesnt need to be compared to other brands since it has a well-developed name in the cars market. The latest innovation is the 360 Modena, the 360 Modena combines Ferrari heritage with innovation. Differentiation/Low Cost Leadership/Focus: it is a unique automotive which painted in race red as this was the customary national racing color of Italy. The company is currently focusing on its own performance in Abu Dhabi. Growth strategy: the company opens an office in Dubai airport free zone, sales have been in double digits in the last couple of years. It is only natural to open a regional office in Dubai which is experiencing rapid economic growth along with the UAE and the entire Gulf region. THE MARKETING MIX Product:- Vehicles of high performance Carrazzeria Scagliette- program to allow clients to personalizing their cars A statement of class. Price: least expensive Ferrari: 360 Modena-$170,200 and most expensive Ferrari: Enzo- $700,000. Place:- 1 location in Vancouver 2 locations in Toronto 1 location in Montreal Location in Yorkville and Woodbridge Promotion:- F1 advertise through their use of F1 race car Brochure information about the different models. Reputation Relay on words of mouth, since the car meets a small amount of societies demand( cost)they expect customers who have interest to visit a dealership for more information Ferrari knows well of their clients. People, processes, physical evidence:- the 2010 Ferrari 458 Italia would be headline news from any car company since it is an attempt to bring forward the concept of an exotic sports car into an age more conscious of efficiency EVALUATION OF THE COMPANYS STATEGIES AND TACTICS Evaluation of the companys current position: currently the company has closed the quarter with a trading profit of à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬39 million. The decline was attributable on one side, to a less favorable product mix and, on the other hand, to the fact that newly -released F458 Italia provided a limited contribution for the period. The success of 8- cylinder models continued in the first quarter of 2010, with numerous awards and recognitions being received by the California and the F458 Italia. Evidence of the companys success:- Ferrari SpA, the maker of the $228,000 California supercar, will increase profit by more than 10% this year , helped by a surge in demand in emerging markets, said Chairman Luca Cordero di Montezemolo. Ferraris earnings before interest, taxes and one-time gains / losses, or trading profit increased by 10% to 77 million Euros in second quarter as the revenues increased. China sales increased 20% in the first half. The company was also successful in launching the Ferrari Theme Park in Abu Dhabi. Prospects for future growth/success: the luxury car maker company plans to start selling in India in the beginning of the year.2012 Ferrari 458 Italia Spider is the future model to be launched although it hasnt been officially announced, an open-up version of the 458 Italia is on its way in 2011 and the 2013, the final addition to the Italia lineup will be the Scuderia track model, which will leave behind some luxury in return for less weight improved performance. BCG MATRIX The company is large enough to be organized into strategic business sector facing the challenge. Cash cows: Ferrari has a vast market share in a slow growing industry. Cash cows require investment and generate cash which can be used to invest in other business units. Star: the company is leading in the high growth markets. They are generating huge amount of cash from the F1 races and have also used cash for launching new projects. Question marks: the company did not achieve a dominant market position, and do not generate much cash. Due to growth of the market they use most of the cash. The company by launching new sports cars and taking part in races is a rapidly growing market. Dogs: comparing to the Ferrari company sports cars other company cars have little future as they gain less cash by virtue of their low market share. CONCLUSION By analyzing the above report I can conclude the company is doing good as its sales and profit are good even in this time of recession compared to other competitive companies (i.e Lamborghini, Porsche, Maserati etc). Also their future projects are interesting which will attract the young generation. Ferrari achieves most of its success from the Formula 1 races by wining many awards, and also they have been successful in their recent launch of the Theme Park and aiming to launch more in other countries APPENDICES

Compassion Fatigue Analysis Health And Social Care Essay

Compassion Fatigue Analysis Health And Social Care Essay Nowadays, natural disasters, warfare, violent crime, acts of terrorism, domestic violence and child abuse are circumstances that significantly impact life in modern society (Bush, 2009). These events necessitate professional counselors to effectively treat the trauma associated with these personal and societal crises. When counselor are therapeutically engaged with a child or adult who has been traumatized or encounter with the trauma survivor, he or she may be at risk to intrusive thoughts, avoidance, negative affect and impaired psychological functioning (Chrestman, 1995). Therefore, counselors are vulnerable to compassion fatigue. The concept of compassion fatigue emerged only in the last several years in the professional literature. It represents the cost of caring about and for traumatized people (Adams et al., 2006; Figley, 2002). 1.1 Definition of compassion fatigue Some authors identified compassion fatigue as a state in which a counselor lacks of emotional strength, exhaustion, experience languor, and loss of vitality and energy (Alkema, Linton, Davies, 2008). In other words, it may be understand as a sense of being tired of helping others and finding it difficult to act out of compassion. Additionally, some experts view compassion fatigue as a hazard associated primarily with mental health clinicians and with first responders to natural and human made disaster such as China earthquake and incident of 9/11 (Boscarino, Figley, Adams, 2004). Among the helping professions, genetic counselors clearly do witness much pain and suffering, and may fall prey to compassion fatigue (Udipi, Veach, Kao, LeRoy, 2008). According to Fidley (1993) as cited in Figley (2002), compassion fatigue or secondary traumatic stress (STS) can be define as the natural consequence behaviors and emotions resulting from knowing about a traumatizing event experienced by a significant other-the stress resulting from helping or wanting to help a traumatized or suffering person. As Figley (2002) pointed out, compassion fatigue is identical to secondary traumatic stress disorder (STSD) and is the equivalent of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Figley, 2002). Moreover, compassion fatigue is also recognized as secondary traumatization, secondary traumatic stress disorder, or vicarious traumatization within professional literature (Figley, 2002; Hofmann, 2009). 1.2 Historical Background of Compassion Fatigue The study of traumatic events and their subsequent impact on human beings has grown considerably over the past two decades. Since the early 1980s, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) (APPENDIX A) has recognized both acute and Post Traumatic Stress Disorders (PTSD) as identifiable mental health concerns (Alkema et al., 2002). Besides that, according to the notion stated in criterion A1 of the PTSD diagnosis, it clearly indicates that people can develop the symptoms of PTSD without actually being physically harmed or threatened with harm (Alkema et al., 2008; Figley, 2002). That is, people can be traumatized simply by learning about the traumatic event. However, according to a review of the traumatology literature, it come to a conclusion that nearly all of the hundreds of reports focusing on traumatized people exclude those who were traumatized indirectly or secondarily and only focus on those who were directly traumatized, that is, the victims (Craig S prang, 2010; Figley, 2002). As a result, after more than a decade of negligence of the indirect traumatized people, it is important to consider the least studied aspect of traumatized stress, which is secondary traumatic stress (STS) or later, compassion fatigue. The term compassion fatigue was used as far back as 1990, the news media in the United States used compassion fatigue to describe the publics lack of patience, or perhaps simply the editors lack of patience, with the homeless problem, which had previously been presented as an anomaly or even a crisis which had only existed for a short time and could presumably be solved somehow. Later on in 1992, Joinson first used the term in print, in discussing burnout among nurses who deal with hospital emergencies, counselor, emergency workers and other professionals who experience STS in the line of duty (Dominguez-Gomez Rutledge, 2009). That same year Jeffrey Kottler (1992), in his book, Compassionate Therapy, emphasize the importance of compassion in dealing with extremely difficult and resistant patients. Additionally, compassion fatigue has been studied by the field of traumatology, where it has been called the cost of caring for people facing emotional pain (Boscarino et al., 2004; Hofman n, 2009). Furthermore, one of the first earliest references in the scientific literature regarding this cost of caring comes from Carl G. Jung in The Psychology of Dementia Praecox. In this text, Jung discusses the challenges of countertransference the therapists conscious and unconscious reactions to the patient in the therapeutic situation. In his text, he pointed out that therapist can treat their patients with schizophrenia by participates in the delusional fantasies and hallucinations with the patient. Nevertheless, he warns that this participation in the patients darkly painful fantasy world of traumatic images has significant deleterious effects for the therapist; especially when the therapist has not resolved his/her own developmental and traumatic issues (Craig Sprang, 2010; Figley, 2002). 1.3 Statistic of compassion fatigue on counselors Throughout the years, the number of natural and technological disasters was on the rise, therefore, studies of the effects of disaster events on both the victims and the disaster responders increased (Boscarino, Adams, Figley, 2006; Bush, 2009). Many researchers focus on those professionals who provide therapy to victims of trauma such as trauma counselors, crisis workers, nurses and other caregivers who become victims themselves of secondary traumatic stress (STS) or compassion fatigue (Bourassa, 2009; Coetzee Klopper, 2010; Figley, 2002). Studies which focus on examine the psychological impacts of providing mental health counseling to the disasters victims had found out that counselors were psychologically affected by their work, whether or not they personally experienced the disaster (Martin et al., 2010). For instance, as Myers and Wee (2005) pointed out, nearly three-quarters (73.5%) of counselors were rated as being at risk of compassion fatigue, which include moderate risk (23.5%), high risk (29.4%), and extremely high risk (20.6%) in their study of the psychological impact on counselors who work with the trauma survivors of the Oklahoma City Bombing (Myers Wee, 2005) Furthermore, Meldrum et al. (2002) found that 27% of a sample of Australian mental health professions who worked with traumatized individuals reported extreme stress from this type of work (Meldrum, King, Spooner, 2002). In a research article that have been done by Arvay and Uhlemann (1996) using a sample of 161 trauma counselors in British Columbia, they found out that 24% of the counselors interviewed perceived life as stressful. Sixteen percent reported high levels of emotional exhaustion, 4% reported levels of depersonalization and 26% reported feeling ineffective at work in terms of professional accomplishment (Arvay Uhlemann, 1996). Fourteen percent of the sample reported traumatic stress levels similar to PTSD. In their article, Arvay and Uhlemann (1996) also pointed out that the impaired counselor was in his or her early 40s, held less than a masters degree and was more likely to work for an agency than in a private setting. Additionally, Sprang et al. (2007) also found out that young female with higher educational degree and less experience in clinical settings predicted elevated levels compassion fatigue in the studys sample of 1,121 mental health providers (Sprang, Clark, Whitt-Woosley, 2007). 1.4 Causes of compassion fatigue According to Figley (2002), compassion fatigue occurs when one is exposed to extreme events directly experienced by another and becomes overwhelmed by this secondary exposure to trauma. Thus, counselors who always listen to reports of trauma, horror, human cruelty and extreme loss of their clients are at high risk of experience compassion fatigue. In effective counseling, controlled reactivation of the traumatic memories is promoted by many interventions or forms of psychotherapy due to in the prevailing opinion among psychotherapists; working through the traumatic events is beneficial to the client (Craig Sprang, 2010; Kinzel Nanson, 2000). For instance, in behavior therapy, clients are asked to confront with stimuli relating to the traumatic events through returning to a crime scene (in vivo) or imagining the events of the crime (in sensu) (Craig Sprang, 2010). However, psychotherapy work with torture victims is potentially harmful to the therapist and can lead to compassion fatigue although working through the traumatic events experienced by a sufferer of PTSD seems to be beneficial to the client. Undeniably, empathy allows counselors to relate to others in their care and to have a sense of what their clients are feeling. Moreover, it also helps the counselors to put the clients experiences into perspective and understanding how the clients are being affected by the incidents which the counselors are trying to mediate (Meadors et al., 2009). In brief, in an effective counseling, empathy understanding is necessary. Besides that, counselors, by the very nature of their work, are called on to be compassionate toward their clients on a daily basis (Meadors et al., 2009; Pickett, Brennan, Greenberg, Licht, Worrell, 1994). However, the more compassionate and empathetic a counselor is toward the suffering of the traumatized person, the more vulnerable that counselor is to compassion fatigue. It is due to compassion fatigue is based on the idea of a syndrome resulting specifically from empathizing with people who are experiencing pain and suffering; counselor can become overwhelmed a nd may begin to experience feelings of fear, pain and suffering similar to that of their clients (Figley, 2002; Meadors et al., 2009). As Alkema et al. (2008) pointed out, the common situations of counselor that can lead to compassion fatigue include 1) listening to stories of child abuse; 2) working with suicidal ideation, 3) interacting with the terminally ill; 4) responding with humanitarian aid in situations like disaster, poverty, or war; 5) caring for families with an injured or dying child; 6) providing support for survivors of rape; and 7) providing services for bereaved families. It is important to note that the sense of being overwhelmed or vulnerability to compassion fatigue is subjective, meaning that what overwhelms one counselor, may not necessarily overwhelm another. Additionally, even one story that overwhelms the counselors ability to make sense of the event, can lead to compassion fatigue symptoms (Alkema et al., 2008; Bush, 2009). Therefore, it is essential for the counselor to recognize compassion fatigue symptoms in themselves and their coworkers in turn to provide any emergency aid if needed. 1.5 Symptoms of compassion fatigue The symptoms of compassion fatigue vary in intensity depending on counselor characteristics and the characteristics of the client population. The resulting symptoms of compassion fatigue typically have an acute onset and are usually associated with a particular event (Stamm, 2005). Symptoms may include: being afraid, having intrusive images enter the persons attention, having trouble sleeping, or avoiding situations that remind the individual of the event (Tehrani, 2010). Moreover, compassion fatigue can have negative impact on spiritual development of counselor due to in some cases, counselor are psychologically bombarded by the traumatic recollections, emotional suffering, and psychological pain brought by their clients into session. A counselor might begin doubting his/her values, might express anger or bitterness toward God, and begin withdrawing from fellowship (Udipi et al., 2008). Furthermore, the range of counselor behaviors indicating compassion fatigue can include spending less time with clients, being late and absent from work, making professional errors, being hypercritical of others, making sarcastic and cynical comments about clients and the organization, abusing chemicals, and keeping poor records (Stewart, 2009; Tehrani, 2010). In addition, compassion fatigue also can manifest as physical symptoms such as rapid pulse, sleep disturbance, fatigue, reduced resistance to infection, weakness and dizziness, memory problems, weight change, ga strointestinal complaints, hypertension, and head-aches, backaches, or muscle aches (Meadors et al., 2009) According to Stewart (2009), for people exposed to primary stressors (i.e., client) and for those exposed to secondary stressors, there is a fundamental difference between the pattern of response during and following the traumatic event. Researches indicate the symptoms of secondary traumatic stress disorder (STSD) or compassion fatigue is nearly identical to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), except that PTSD symptoms are directly connected to the sufferer (e.g., client), yet STSD symptoms is associated with a exposure to knowledge about traumatizing event experienced by the people who care (e.g., counselor). Moreover, as Fidley (2002) pointed out, symptoms of compassion fatigue can be divided into categories of intrusive, avoidance, and arousal symptoms. Table 1: Compassion fatigue symptoms Intrusive Symptoms Thoughts and images associated with clients traumatic experiences Obsessive and compulsive desire to help certain clients Client/work issues encroaching upon personal time Inability to let go of work-related matters Perception of survivors as fragile and needing the assistance of the caregiver Thoughts and feelings of inadequacy as a caregiver Sense of entitlement or specialness Perception of the world in terms of victims and perpetrators Personal activities interrupted by work-related issues Avoidance Symptoms Silencing Response (avoiding hearing/witnessing clients traumatic material) Loss of enjoyment in activities/cessation of self-care activities Loss of energy Loss of hope/sense of dread working with certain clients Loss of sense of competence/potency Isolation Secretive self-medication/addiction (alcohol, drugs, work, sex, food, spending, etc.) Relational dysfunction Arousal Symptoms Increased anxiety Impulsivity/reactivity Increased perception of demand/threat (in both job and environment) Increased frustration/anger Sleep disturbance Difficulty concentrating Change in weight/appetite Somatic symptoms 1.6 Measuring compassion fatigue It is essential to assess for compassion fatigue symptoms in the caregiver especially for counselors who work with those traumatized clients (Hofmann, 2009; Stamm, 2005) Thus, certain reliable instrument is needed to use to measure the degree of compassion fatigue in counselors. It is mainly due to through the scoring of the instrument, it can give the counselor valuable feedback or insight of their vulnerability level to compassion fatigue (Adams et al., 2008; Stamm, 2005). Besides that, an examination of the history of the counselor is also a critical step in treating compassion fatigue as researchers have found that a personal history of a traumatic experience can contribute to the experience of compassion fatigue (Adams, Figley, Boscarino, 2008). Thus, compassion fatigue counselors can assist their co-workers to examine the role that their previous traumatic material has on making them vulnerable to the experience of compassion fatigue. For instance, the Professional Quality of Life Scale: Compassion Satisfaction and Subscales (ProQOL) have been widely used in assessing secondary/vicarious trauma (Bride, Radey, Figley, 2007). Professional Quality of Life Scale (ProQOL) ProQOL is a 30 item self-report measure to assess the dimensions compassion satisfaction, burn-out and compassion fatigue (APPENDIX A). The compassion satisfaction dimension (CS) measures pleasure derived from being able to do the daily work well where higher scores on this scale represent a greater satisfaction related to ones ability to be an effective caregiver. Besides that, the burnout dimension (BO) in this scale is associated with feelings of hopelessness and difficulties in dealing with work. Higher scores are related to higher risk for burnout. Moreover, the compassion fatigue dimension (CF) relates to work-related secondary exposure to extremely stressful events. High scores indicate that ones are exposed to frightening experiences at work. The alpha reliabilities for the scales are 1) Compassion Satisfaction alpha = .87, 2) Burnout alpha = .72 and 3) Compassion Fatigue alpha = .80. Additionally, the construct validity upon which the test is based is well established with over 200 articles noted in the peer-review literature. Using the multi-trait multi-method mode for convergent and discriminant validity the scales on the ProQOL do, in fact, measure different constructs (Adams et al., 2008; Bride et al., 2007). 1.7 Consequences of compassion fatigue Researches have indicated for those counselors who have the greatest capacity for feeling and expressing empathy are at the greatest risk from experiencing secondary traumatic stress or compassion fatigue (Alkema et al., 2008). Furthermore, it has been recognized that counselors suffering from compassion fatigue may be engaged in impaired or unethical practice. Those counselors may become worried with their patients/clients and exhibit signs and symptoms that are not beneficial to optimal patient/client care. It can negatively affect the ability to provide services and maintain personal and professional relationships (Craig Sprang, 2010). When a counselor is suffering from compassion fatigue, he or shes ability to listen with empathy becomes compromised, the counselor may unconsciously avoid the traumatic material brought by the client in an effort to maintain the integrity of the counselors world view (Alkema et al., 2008; Bride et al., 2007). For instance, the counselor will tend to remain silent when he or she is unable to attend to the clients traumatic material. Instead, the counselor will redirects the conversation to less disturbing material that is more pleasant to them (Alkema et al., 2008). Moreover, as Adam et al. (2006) pointed out, counselors who are suffering from compassion fatigue may hurt their clients by placing their own needs above the needs of the clients. They may tend to avoid the discussion of the traumatic content as a means of protecting themselves from further exposure. According to Bride et al. (2006), avoidance of clients traumatic issue in counseling comprise a degree of unethical practice as it further isolates the client in his or her psychological pain and suffering. As a result, the counseling alliance may be damage and will lead to further suffering for the client and puts the counselor itself at risk for injuring other clients. Besides that, it is important to note that counselor with compassion fatigue is more likely to develop a sense of isolation, exhaustion and professional dissatisfaction. Therefore, compassion fatigue has the potential to rob the professional of his or her sense of well-being if left unaddressed (Alkema et al., 2008; Crai g Sprang, 2010; Figley, 2002). PREVENTIONS AND INTERVENTIONS After years of clinical practice, counselors are being confronted with tragedies of life and depression (Hofmann, 2009). Therefore, they are at high risk of accumulated pain and sadness. Thus, if without an appropriate way or the time to have positive experiences, it will increase the risk of compassion fatigue and distancing (Kinzel Nanson, 2000; Newsom, 2010). For that reason, the need for some kind of structured prevention, support, and strengthening processes is necessary in order to help the counselor to deal with indirect traumatization. Among the intervention methods, debriefing sessions are a good way to help a counselor with compassion fatigue decompress and normalize what they are experiencing (Kinzel Nanson, 2000; Pickett et al., 1994). During debriefing session, traumatic incident is discussed in a structured group meeting. Through debriefing, it can help the counselor to address the immediate psychological impact that he or she experienced from the client. Thus, through discussing and seeking assistance from other colleagues and caregivers who have had experience with trauma and have remained healthy and hopeful, it can assist the counselor to alleviate the traumatic symptoms (Pickett et al., 1994). In addition, the importance of regular professional supervision, before and after traumatic events, has been identified as essential, as is continuing education and training (Kinzel Nanson, 2000; Meadors et al., 2009). It is due to for the purpose to promote long-term coping with the consequences of the traumatic events, continuity of the supervision and training program is necessary. Moreover, the aim of supervision is to explore and reduce the impact of the painful client material on the counselors thinking and emotions. In the United Kingdom, personal supervision is a professional requirement for counselors and it may be provided by a clinical supervisor, manager, or peer (Kinzel Nanson, 2000). According to pre-existing studies, it had been recognized that self-hypnosis have beneficial effects on immune control, enhanced mood and well-being (Martin et al., 2010; Mottern, 2010; Ruysschaert, 2003). Besides that, clinical experience with clients and therapists reports also indicated that ones can recovering and lowering their overall level of stress through self-hypnosis (Martin et al., 2010). Therefore, self-hypnosis is an effective tool to help counselor in preventing compassion fatigue or in promoting compassion satisfaction. In stress management, counselors ability to let go do play a very important role in stress-resistance or resilience. Figley (1995) also sees let-it-go as an important aspect in the reduction of compassionate stress. Therefore, in effective counseling, it is important for the counselor to find ways to create some distance from the emotional pain that they experienced from their clients. According to Morttern (2010), practicing self-hypnosis in a regular basis is important step in promoting self-awareness and temporarily distancing oneself from the outside world. For instance, it is possible for the counselor who suffered from compassion fatigue letting go of intrusions and thoughts indirectly by imagining thoughts as clouds, coming and going, and just noticing what happens (Mottern, 2010). Furthermore, counselors have to increase their own self awareness and live a healthy, balanced lifestyle in order decreases their vulnerability from compassion fatigue (Figley, 2002; Prati Pietrantoni, 2009). For instance, counselors can increase their self awareness by knowing their own triggers and vulnerable areas and learn to defuse them or avoid them (Bride et al., 2007). Besides that, counselors have to realize that normal responses to abnormal situations is true for helpers as well as victims. Thus, they should allow themselves to grieve when bad things happen to others (Figley, 2002). Moreover, it is essential for the counselors to set boundaries for themselves by develop realistic expectations about the rewards as well as the limitations of helping (Prati Pietrantoni, 2009). In brief, they have to become aware of any irrational beliefs that impair their well being throughout the helping process. Last but not least, diversions and recreation that allow the counselor to take mini-escapes from the intensity of their work is absolutely essential to avoid from compassion fatigue (Alkema et al., 2008). Researches indicate that those that have the ability to turn their thoughts about work off are more resilient throughout their career (Alkema et al., 2008; Figley, 2002). For instance, counselors can express their feelings through writing in a journal, music or art. CONCLUSION Counselors enroll themselves in the helping profession because they want to assist other in need. Yet, counselors can become so overwhelmed by the exposure to the feelings and experiences of their clients and leave them vulnerable for compassion fatigue. Compassion fatigue, if left untreated, can spark a deterioration of personality and generate a decline in general health of the counselors. Thus, it is of vital importance to treat the helpers or counselors with compassion fatigue so that it do not reach a absurd situation where clients/victims are treated and helped, but those who help them experience such burnout that they can no longer function as mental health care providers or even continue their own life patterns as usual. Therefore, counselors and every mental health professionals must note and address the prevention steps in order to prevent compassion fatigue. In brief, compassion fatigue is a serious problem among members of the helping professions, but counselors will be a ble to get through it by acknowledging it, and staying connected to the good in their own life.